VII. Habitat:

Tigers are found in a variety of habitats, including both tropical and evergreen forests, woodlands, grasslands, rocky country, swamps, and savannas. The Caspian tiger was also found in steppes and mountainous areas. Compared to the lion, the tiger prefers more dense vegetation, for which its camouflage is ideally suited, and where a single predator is not at a disadvantage compared to a pride. Among the big cats, only the tiger and jaguar are strong swimmers; tigers are often found bathing in ponds, lakes, and rivers. Tigers rely on concealment for stalking and ambushing prey. They seek areas with ample food, water, and moderately dense cover. Tigers travel throughout the year in individual home ranges. Tiger home range sizes differ depending on habitat quality, prey availability, the tiger's sex, and the season. a. In India, where prey densities are relatively high, home ranges vary from 50 to 1,000 square km (19-386 square mi.). In Manchuria and southeastern Siberia, where prey are more widely dispersed, home ranges vary from 500 to 4,000 square km (193-1,544 square mi.).
Because tigers are polygynous (males have more than one female mate at one time), male tigers generally have larger home ranges than females. A study in Nepal showed that males have home ranges of 19 to 151 square km (7-58 square mi.), while females have home ranges of 10 to 51 square km (4-20 square mi.). Home range sizes may also vary seasonally. Female tigers in Nepal studies, have larger ranges in the hot season and smaller ranges in the wet season. Females also had smaller home ranges when caring for young cubs. Since tigers do not migrate, where prey is migratory or widely dispersed, like in the Russian Far East, females tend to have overlapping ranges. Some tigers establish exclusive home ranges, or territories. The home ranges of male tigers are intrasexual territories. Male tigers exclude other males from their range, but not females. A male's home range usually overlaps the home range(s) of one to several females. Female tigers may or may not establish territories. Females living in areas with a seasonally stable prey population, like the Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal, usually establish territories. In Kanha Park, India, female tigers studied in the 1960s had overlapping home ranges. By the 1970s, habitat quality and prey availability had improved, and females were reported establishing non-overlapping home ranges.
Female and male tigers mark their home ranges chemically (through scent) and visually. Most marking is done along home range boundaries. The most common form of scent marking is through urine. A chemically modified urine called marking fluid, which has a strong, long-lasting smell, is sprayed on trees, bushes, and rocks. Scraping (abrading the ground with the hind feet) is a common visual marker, placed in conspicuous areas along pathways. Scraping is often accompanied by deposits of feces or urine. Less common methods of marking include tree trunk clawing, cheek rubbing, and flattening of vegetation (through rolling) next to trails. Daily movement within the home range varies. Individuals will visit all parts of their range over a period of days or weeks. Siberian tigers have been recorded moving up to 60 km (37 mi.) per day, while Bengal tigers in Nepal covered about 10 to 20 km (6-12 mi.) per day. Adult female tigers (tigresses) tend to occupy the same home range for their entire lifetime, while males may shift or change their home range several times. Vacant home ranges in prime habitat are quickly filled by animals living in peripheral habitats, usually young adults.

VIII. Diet:

Tigers hunt primarily by night, feeding on deer, cattle, wild pigs and occasionally monkeys, birds, reptiles, fish and carrion. Their main prey species are large animals such as deer, buffalo and wild pigs, but they will also hunt fish, monkeys, birds, reptiles and sometimes even baby elephants. Occasionally, tigers kill leopards, bears and other tigers. The have also been known to attack young rhinoceroses and elephants. Tigers are solitary hunters. They love the water, and are not afraid to chase their prey down into the water. In fact, this is how tigers often get food. The wait for an animal to be drinking at a water hole, then scares the animal into the water, where the tiger will chase it farther into deeper waters, making it easier to catch. Tigers have retractable claws. This enables them to walk through rocky, grassy, muddy, or sandy areas without dulling their claws, which they need to hunt with. Tigers eat almost anything in their range that they can catch. Large and medium sized prey, ungulates, rabbits, wild boar, deer, buffalo, young elephants and rhinos, waterfowl, and elk, make up the majority of their diet. They stalk their prey, and pounce when they are about 30 feet from their quarry. They kill by a lethal bite to the back of the throat, which often dislocates the backbone and severs the spinal cord. Often, a lethal bite is applied to the throat, which cuts off air supply and asphyxiates (suffocates) the animal. Tigers can eat as much as 40 lb (18 kg) of meat in one sitting. Tigers, like other felines, need to eat some grass to provide nutrients and roughage.
Tigers will usually avoid humans because they do not provide much meat, and they prefer the taste of wild game. However, if a tiger becomes a man-eater, there is usually a reason for it. One reason is that the tiger is very old, to the point where his teeth are worn down, and cannot catch wild game anymore. Humans are much easier to catch and kill, so they prey on humans. Another, more common reason, is the tiger was injured or sick, and can no longer hunt for itself. However, many tigers, like those that live in the mangrove forests of the Sundarbans, seem to have a taste for humans. No one knows why they do this, as these tigers are young and healthy. Some speculate that they are guarding their territory; others think that the salty waters in the marsh they drink make them irritable. These tigers, however, do not come into human settlements; they only kill humans that have wandered too far into the mangrove forests. People who venture into the forests to gather wood and food wear masks on the backs of their heads since tigers only attack them from behind. Since they started this, the numbers of tiger attacks have been greatly reduced. However, once a tiger becomes a man-eater, it will not cease, and has to be destroyed to protect people.
The large canines are used to make the killing bite, but they tear meat when feeding using the carnassials teeth in the wild, tigers mostly feed on larger and medium sized animals. Sambar, gaur, water buffalo, chital, wild boar and nilgai are the tiger's favored prey in India. In Siberia the main prey species are Mandchurian elk, wild boar, sika deer, roe deer and musk deer. In Sumatra rusa deer, wild boar and Malayan tapir are preyed on. In the former Caspian tiger's range saiga, camels, Caucasian Wisent, yak and wild horses were preyed. Like many predators, they are opportunistic and will eat much smaller prey such as monkeys, peacocks, hares and fish. They also may kill such formidable predators as dholes, leopards, and pythons. Tigers have been known to kill even crocodiles on occasion, although predation is rare and the predators typically avoid one another. Siberian tigers and brown bears are a serious threat to each other and usually avoid confrontation; however, tigers will kill bear cubs and even some adults on occasion. Bears (Asiatic black bears and brown bears) make up 5-8% of the tigers diet in the Russian Far East.
Sloth bears are quite aggressive and will sometimes drive young tigers away from their kills although the opposite happens as well and in some cases Indian tigers even prey on sloth bears. Adult elephants are too dangerous to tigers to serve as common prey, but conflicts between elephants and tigers do sometimes take place. A case where a tiger killed an adult female Indian rhino has been observed. Young elephant and rhino calves are occasionally taken. Tigers sometimes prey on domestic animals such as dogs, cows, horses and donkeys. These individuals are termed cattle-lifters or cattle-killers in contrast to typical game-killers. Especially old and injured tigers have been known to attack humans and are then termed as man-eaters, which often leads to them being captured, shot or poisoned. Man-eaters have been a recurrent problem for India, especially in Kumaon and Garhwal in the early part of the twentieth century, notable accounts of the hunting of which have been written by [Jim Corbett]. The Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal, where some healthy tigers have been known to hunt humans, have had a higher incidence of man-eaters.
Tigers' extremely strong jaws and sharp teeth make them superb predators.Tigers hunt alone and prefer medium to large sized herbivores. They ambush their prey as other cats do, overpowering them from any angle, using their body size and strength to knock large prey off balance. Even with their great masses, tigers can reach speeds of about 49-65 km/h (35-40 mph). Tigers prefer to bite the throats of large prey and use their muscled forelimbs to hold onto the prey, bringing it to the ground. The tiger remains latched onto the neck until its prey dies. With small prey, the tiger bites the nape, often breaking the spinal cord, piercing the windpipe, or severing the jugular vein or carotid artery. The prey is killed instantly.
In the wild, tigers can leap as high as 5 m (16 ft) and as far as 9–10 m (30–33 ft), making them one of the highest-jumping mammals (just slightly behind cougars in jumping ability).
They have been reported to carry domestic livestock weighing 50 kg (110 lb) while easily jumping over fences 2 m (6 ft 6 in) high. Their heavily muscled forelimbs are used to hold tightly onto the prey and to avoid being dislodged, especially by large prey such as gaurs. Gaurs and water buffalos weighing over a ton have been killed by tigers weighing about a sixth as much. The combination of claws and power behind a tiger's paws enables it to kill an adult human with one swipe.
Tigers are solitary hunters and actively search for prey using their eyesight and hearing. They depend on concealment and a stalk and ambush approach to capture prey. When prey is located, the tiger begins its stalk. It approaches the prey from the side or rear, in a semi-crouch or crouch position. Remaining concealed, quiet, and cautious, the tiger attempts to get within 20 m (66 ft.) of its victim. Once the tiger is close enough, it suddenly rushes the prey. Using its powerful forelimbs and sharp claws, the tiger seizes the prey by the shoulder, back, or neck, and forces it to the ground. Unless the prey is quite large, tigers usually keep their hind feet on the ground. During or after the attack, the tiger administers a lethal bite to the nape (back) of the neck or the throat of its victim. When prey weighs more than half as much as the tiger, the tiger will usually bite the throat, causing suffocation. When prey is smaller, the tiger commonly bites the nape of the neck, damaging the spinal cord. Tigers mainly attack prey weighing 50 to 200 kg (110-441 lb.), but regularly take animals weighing up to 400 kg (882 lb.). Before feeding, kills are often carried or dragged to an area of dense cover. Tigers usually begin eating at the animal's rump. Because of their size and build, tigers can kill prey large enough to provide meals for several days. Tigers can consume 20 to 35 kg (44-77 lb.) of food at one sitting; but they usually eat about 15 to 18 kg (33-40 lb.) of food a day, over several days. They don't seem to mind eating decaying flesh. After meals, tigers cover the remains of the kill with vegetation or debris. This conceals the carcass from scavengers such as vultures and jackals. Tigers mainly rest and drink between meals, but may kill other prey if the opportunity arises. Tigers usually gorge themselves at a kill, and they may not need to eat again for several days. If their food requirements are averaged per day over a year, female tigers need about 5 to 6 kg (11-13 lb.) of food per day and males need about 6 to 7 kg (13-15 lb.) of food per day. Kill frequency varies between tigers. Researchers in Nepal found that female tigers without young killed every 8 to 8.5 days (42-45 kills per year). Researchers in India had similar findings. Female tigers with two cubs ages six to ten months old killed every five to six days (61-73 kills per year). Not all attempted attacks are successful. Tigers probably have only one successful attack in every 10 to 20 tries. Potential prey may see the tiger and escape before the attack, or if the prey is large enough, manage to escape after attacked. Tigers will not chase prey over long distances. Powerful prey animals, like buffalo and guar, may injure or kill tigers during attacks. Packs of Asiatic wild dogs, called dholes, are quite dangerous, and may actually pursue and kill tigers. Tigers don't always kill their own food. They'll drive other predators, such as leopards, away from their kills.

IX. Reproduction:

Female tigers become sexually mature at about three to four years of age. Male tigers become sexually mature at about four to five years of age. A female tiger may enter estrus (the time when a female is receptive and capable of conceiving young) every three to nine weeks, and her receptivity lasts three to six days. In tropical climates, females may come into estrus throughout the year, though mating seems to be more frequent during the coolest months (November to April). In temperate regions, females enter estrus and mate only during the winter months. Females advertise their readiness to mate. A few days before she enters estrus, the female will scent-mark her range more frequently with distinctive smelling urine. The distinct smell is caused by specific urinary gland secretions. During estrus, the female may also roar and/or moan until she attracts a male. Females usually vocalize several times a day. Though not common, one female in Nepal was recorded roaring 69 times in 15 minutes. When a male approaches an estrous female, he may or may not answer her roars. The pair usually begins their courtship by circling each other and growling. The female may even try to run away from the male, but is quickly pursued by him. Eventually, the pair rubs their bodies against each other and copulation occurs. Copulation is very brief and is repeated frequently for five or six days. Female tigers are induced ovulators, which mean the act of mating causes the female to release an egg for fertilization. Several days of mating interactions may be required to stimulate ovulation and guarantee fertilization of the egg. Both male and female tigers may have several mates over their lifetime. Most tigers in zoological parks are captive-born. There are currently captive breeding programs for all tiger subspecies. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) Tiger Species Survival Plan (SSP) jointly coordinates the breeding programs of three tiger subspecies: Siberian tigers (with Europe and Japan), Indo-Chinese tigers (with countries in the tiger's range), and Sumatran tigers (with Europe, Australasia, and Indonesia). The Bengal tiger breeding program is managed in Europe and India, and the South China tiger program is managed primarily in China. As of 1995, there are about 1,800 tigers in captive environments worldwide. Of this total, 913 tigers from 233 institutions are registered in the International Species Inventory System (ISIS). ISIS is a computer-based information system designed to coordinate captive breeding efforts. (pers. conv., Susie Ellis, CBSG). Currently, most captive tigers registered in ISIS are Bengals (348) and Siberians (336). The goal of current programs is to increase captive breeding of the other tiger subspecies. (pers. conv., S. Ellis).
A female tiger's gestation period is about 100 days. Gestation may range from 93 to 111 days. Most adult tiger females give birth about every 2 to 2.5 years. Periodically, the interval between births is every three to four years. If a litter of newborns dies, a female can produce another litter within five months. Two to four cubs are normally born per litter, but litter size can vary from one to six cubs. At birth, tiger cubs weigh about 780 to 1,600 g (1.7-3.5 lb.). Tiger cubs are born on a cushion of matted grass in a cave, a rocky crevice, a hollow tree, or in dense vegetation. The cubs are born with their eyes closed. A mother tiger nurses her young for about three to six months. The father does not assist in their upbringing. Cubs open their eyes at about one week of age, but do not see clearly until about two months of age. For the first two months, tiger cubs are confined to the den site, and are seldom left unattended. During this time, females may move their cubs several times to new dens to avoid predators like leopards, hyenas, jackals, and unfamiliar male tigers. When moving, the female gently carries the cubs, one by one, in her jaws. After two months of age, the cubs begin to eat meat. The female will hunt on her own, and afterwards lead her cubs to the kill. The cubs now weigh about 10 kg (22 lb.). Tiger cubs are quite playful, and spend their time stalking and leaping on each other, or attacking their mother's tail. They also practice their stalking technique on small animals, like birds or insects. By about six months of age, the cubs are weaned and they begin traveling with their mother as she hunts. For the following year, the cubs are taught how to hunt. At first, the cubs watch their mother as she hunts. Next, the mother may cripple a deer or buffalo and let the cubs finish it off. Finally, the cubs practice their skills on their own. By 18 months of age, the cubs are usually capable, independent hunters. These sub adults may be as large as or larger than their mother in size. Sub adult tigers may remain in their mother's home range for up to 30 months. They are usually driven off the range by their mother as she starts taking her new litter of cubs to kills.
Young males usually disperse (travel away from their mothers' area) farther than young females. In Nepal, males dispersed on average 33 km (21 mi.), while females dispersed only 9.7 km (6 mi.). Sub adult males usually disperse to marginal habitats surrounding the resident population. They tend to establish temporary territories, and as they mature, gradually expand them into prime habitat breeding territories or move into the vacated territory of a resident male. Unlike females, males normally shift or change home ranges several times during their lifetime. Sub adult females often establish a home range next to their mother, and may even acquire a portion of her range. Some researchers believe the survival advantage of finding a suitable range close to home (thereby avoiding the risks of dispersal) may outweigh the potential risk of inbreeding between a daughter and father. The first two years of life is a dangerous time for tigers. The mortality rate is at least 50%. Young cubs are vulnerable to predators, grass fires, and floods. Older cubs may be hurt or killed when learning to hunt dangerous prey. Females survive more frequently than males. Male cubs tend to be more adventurous when learning to hunt prey. During dispersal, sub adult males have a high rate of injury due to fights with resident males. They also disperse more often into marginal habitats where prey is harder to find. If they try to survive by "cattle-lifting" (hunting domestic livestock), they may be shot or poisoned.

X. Communication:

Smell and Touch: Tigers have a well-developed sense of smell; however, it's rarely used for hunting. Smell is most commonly used to communicate with other tigers. When smelling another tiger's scent mark, a tiger will wrinkle its nose and hang out its tongue in a grimace called flehmen. Flehmen is used to draw a scent to the Jacobson's organ (a sensitive organ in the roof of the mouth), which receives the chemical information. Through scent marking, tigers can communicate their home range boundaries, and female tigers can advertise their readiness to mate. A tiger can tell whether a scent belongs to a local resident or a stranger, a male or a female. Overall urine is the most common scent communicator. Tigers use urine (marking fluid) most often to mark home range boundaries. A female tiger increases her rate of scent-marking a few days before (not during) estrus to attract a mate. The resident male usually responds by increasing his scent marking around the female's territory while she's in estrus. Tigers and cats in general, communicate by exchanging scents through body contact. Tigers typically greet by rubbing their faces and cheeks on each other. By rubbing, body scents from the face glands are transferred between cats, which reinforce social bonds. Face rubbing can be seen between mother tigers and their young, and between courting pairs. The base of the tail also has a scent gland which may be rubbed against objects or familiar tigers. Glands between the toes may produce secretions which are left when tigers use scratching posts. Anal glands produce a secretion, that when mixed with feces, produces a potent-smelling home range marker.
Tigers also have a well-developed sense of touch. They have tactile sensory hairs called whiskers on their cheeks, above the eyes, and on the muzzle. The whiskers, especially those on the muzzle, are used to feel for objects in the environment. Mother tigers and cubs, and courting pairs often rub against and lick each other.

Visual: Tigers also have good vision, both during the day and at night. During the day, a tiger's sight is about the same as a human's, though its visual acuity (ability to see detail) is not as good. At night, when a tiger usually hunts, its sight is six times better than a human's. A tiger sees better at night compared to a human because its eye has a larger anterior chamber and lens, and a wider pupil. Like other cats, the tiger's retinas have mostly rod receptor cells which are sensitive to low light levels and movement. Tigers and cats in general have a cluster of cone receptor cells in each retina indicating they have some color vision. However, scientists believe a cat's cone cells are used primarily to enhance day vision, not for color vision. Tigers also have a layered structure at the back of the eye behind the retina called the tapetum lucidum. This mirror like structure reflects light (that hasn't already been absorbed by the eye) back into the eye a second time to help produce a brighter image. The tapetum lucidum is what causes the eyes of cats to shine when a light is shown directly at them. Tigers have highly developed binocular vision, similar to that of humans. Binocular vision enables tigers to judge distances when jumping or stalking. Tigers have broadly elliptical pupils which appear round when dilated at night, but elliptical during the day. The pupils of smaller cats close to vertical slits in daylight.
A tiger's body language is similar to that of other cats. For instance, when a tiger shows aggression (an offensive threat) the tail is usually lashed from side to side, the head is held low, the ears are twisted so that the backs face forward (showing the ear spots), the eyes are opened wide, and the mouth is almost closed with the lips forming a straight line. During a defensive threat, the ears are normally laid back, the teeth are bared, the nose is wrinkled, the eyes are narrowed to slits, and the tail is held low. When greeting another tiger or investigating surroundings, a tiger's ears are upright and alert and the tail is held high.

Vocal: Tigers roar to advertise their location. Roars are used for long-range communication and can be heard for over 3 km (2 mi.). Roars can be used as a warning to keep other tigers away or as an invitation to bring another tiger closer. Loud moans are most often heard in combination with roars. Soft moans are used by mother tigers to gather cubs, or by individuals to announce their approach to other tigers. Prusten is a short, noisy, low-intensity sound used as a friendly greeting or a reassuring call between a mother tiger and her cubs, or a courting pair. Growls, snarls, and hisses are used in aggressive and defensive encounters. Other close contact vocalizations include grunting, meowing, purring, and woofing.

Hearing: Tigers have exceptional hearing, which they use to locate prey in dense cover. Their hearing is probably similar to the hearing of domestic cats. Domestic cats can hear sounds in the range of about .2 kHz to 65 kHz. The average hearing range for humans is about .02 kHz to 20 kHz.

XI. Behaviors:

Tigers are solitary (with the exception of mothers with cubs) although they may sometimes come together to share a kill. Unlike most other cats, tigers are fond of water and are strong swimmers. Tigers stalk and ambush their prey. They use dense covering to conceal themselves and sneak up on their prey. When the tiger is close enough it suddenly rushes at its prey and kills it by grabbing the throat or nape of the neck. Females occupy ranges between 25-1600 sq. km. Males occupy larger ranges which may overlap with the ranges of several females. More than other big cats, tigers have a reputation as man-eaters. In truth, it is rare for a tiger to attack people. It is normally old or injured tigers who are the culprits, as they are less able to catch their usual prey. The tiger hunts alone, primarily between dusk and dawn, traveling six to 20 miles in a night in search of prey. A typical predatory sequence includes a slow, silent stalk until the tiger is 30 to 35 feet from the selected prey animal followed by a lightening fast rush to close the gap. The tiger grabs the animal in its forepaws, brings it to the ground, and finally kills the animal with a bite to the neck or throat. After dragging the carcass to a secluded spot, the tiger eats. A tiger eats 33 to 40 pounds of meat in an average night, and must kill about once per week. Catching a meal is not easy; a tiger is successful only once in ten to 20 hunts. An adult tiger defends a large area from all other tigers of the same sex. The primary resource of this territory is food. A female's territory must contain enough prey to support herself and her cubs. A male's territory, additionally, must offer access to females with which to mate. Thus, a male's territory overlaps with that of one to seven females. Male territories are always larger than those of females. But territory size varies enormously and is directly related to the abundance of prey in a given habitat. For instance, Indian tigers in prey-rich habitats in Nepal defend quite small territories: female territories average just eight square miles. At the other extreme, in the prey-poor Russian Far East, Amur tiger female territories average 200 square miles. In both areas, male territories are proportionately larger.
Except for a mother and her cubs, tigers live and hunt alone. But that does not mean they are not social. Scent marks and visual signposts, such as scratch marks, allow tigers to track other tigers in the area, and even identify individuals. A female tiger knows the other females whose territories abut hers; in many cases, a neighbor may be her daughter. Females know their overlapping males (and vice versa) and probably know when a new male takes over. All tigers can identify passing strangers. So, solitary tigers actually have a rich social life; they just prefer to socialize from a distance. Tigers are solitary animals, with the male and female only getting together to mate. Males can occupy territories of 10 to 30 square miles (26-78 sq. km), that is often connected to many smaller females' territories. Siberian tigers have the largest ranges, being up to 120 sq mi (264 sq km). The size of the territory is determined by the amount of available prey. The more abundant the prey is in a particular area, the smaller the territory. Both male and female tigers spray urine on raised objects to mark their territory. They also use a secretion from their anal glands to mark their territory, and will sometimes even deposit feces to mark boundaries. They also scratch on trees to leave a visual mark. Tigers are very territorial animals, and will fight any strange tiger in their home range, male or female. Both sexes increase their territorial behavior around the mating season, where scent marking will help to attract a mate and deter any wandering males. One the female has mated with the male or males, she will have nothing to do with him and will kill him if she sees him in her territory, since male tigers will kill her cubs.
Males always live alone. However, during the majority of her life, the female is surrounded by cubs and sub-adults that will stay with her for up to three years. She will only care for one litter at a time, so until her last litter leaves, she will not breed. Females tend to stay near their mother, and have even been known to establish territories within or adjacent to their mother's territory. However, males tend to leave earlier, and will travel several miles to establish a territory of his own. The fact that tigers are solitary animals can be a virtue as well as a handicap. By themselves, they do not have to support any one but themselves, and cubs if they have them. No sharing food means that they can grow big without any competition. However, the downside is that if the tiger should happen to become injured during a hunt, it will die because if it cannot provide for itself, no one else will. Often, old tigers, or those who become injured, either by a trap or from a hunt, become livestock and man-eaters, because they cannot catch anything but weak animals like humans, or penned up animals. What most farmers don't realize is that putting traps out for tigers, or shooting them and not making sure they are dead, encourages man-eaters, because the animals are injured. Tigers are excellent swimmers, and tend to spend a lot of time in the water, especially during the summer when temperatures can get very hot. It also helps to relieve them from all the flies. Tigers often mate in the water. Tigers are essentially solitary animals, except for courting pairs and females with young. Tigers with adjoining ranges may have friendly relationships, but even individuals with overlapping ranges usually keep 2 to 5 km (1-3 mi.) apart. Though they hunt alone, tigers sometimes share their kills with other tigers. Female tigers regularly share kills with their young dependent cubs. Sibling tigers, when learning how to hunt independently in their mother's range, occasionally share kills. Male and female tigers may share a kill during courtship. Groups of two or more tigers, of various ages and sexes, may share a kill if food is plentiful. These aggregations are most often observed at manmade feeding stations where prey is regularly provided (to attract tigers). When young tiger cubs share a kill with each other and/or their mother, they often feed simultaneously. When adult tigers share a kill, usually only one tiger feeds at a time. In general, tigers tend to avoid each other rather than fight. When tigers do fight, they seldom fight to the death, but injuries may occur that later cause death. Both male and female tigers will fight other tigers if necessary to defend, expand, or acquire a territory.
Male tigers may fight another male if both are attracted to the same breeding female. Male tigers may occasionally attack and kill young tiger cubs. Conversely, female tigers will attack male tigers and other predators to protect their young. Tigers are essentially nocturnal. Most tigers are active and moving primarily at night (sunset to sunrise). Night activities include hunting (a tiger's prey is also active at night), patrolling and marking home ranges, courting mates, and tending to young. These same activities may also occur during the day, but less frequently. If hunting is unsuccessful during the night, a hungry tiger will hunt during the day. Mother tigers will also hunt during the day to provide enough food for their cubs. Tigers are least active from mid-morning to mid-afternoon. Activity steadily decreases after sunrise, reaching its lowest point at mid-day. Movement gradually increases again until the hour before sunset, when the majority of tigers are active. Mid-morning to mid-afternoon is the hottest part of the day. To stay cool, tigers often rest in dense vegetation, or lie along, and in, streams and rivers. Most daily movements take place on land, but tigers are also good swimmers. Tigers can easily cross rivers 6 to 8 km (4-5 mi.) wide, and have been known to swim distances of up to 29 km (18 mi.).

XII. Conservational Status:

1. Introduction:
The tiger, one of the most magnificent animals in the world, is also one of the most endangered. A cat of beauty, strength, and majesty, the tiger is master of all and subject to none -- except humans. Of the Nine original subspecies of tigers, three have become extinct within the last 60 years; and there are less than 50 South China tigers left on this planet -- few, and possibly none, survive in the wild. There are five different kinds or subspecies of tiger alive in the world today. These tigers are called Siberian, South China, Indochinese, Bengal, and Sumatran. Their Latin name is Panthera tigris. Tigers are an endangered species; only about 5,000 to 7,400 tigers are left in the wild. Three tiger subspecies, the Bali, Javan, and Caspian tigers have become extinct in the past 70 years. Poachers are continuing to exterminate the world's remaining Tigers. New demand across Southeast Asia for the skins, teeth and claws of tigers is endangering much of the great cats, particularly the Sumatran tiger. Currently, the demand for Tiger parts is centered in several parts of Asia where there is a strong market for traditional medicines made from items like tiger bone and body parts. Volumes are sizeable and there has been little enforcement action against poachers and traders. In the 1970's we came dangerously close to losing forever one of the world most magnificent creatures. Poaching, deforestation, and human expansion brought all species of tiger to the brink of extinction. Indeed, over the past century, 3 of the 8 sub-species that existed became extinct; the Caspian, Javan and Balinese tigers. Today, we are by no means out of the woods. All remaining sub-species of tiger are endangered, making the tiger species as a whole nearly extinct. The Map shows how the range of tigers has changed over the past 100 years. Once ranging all throughout India, Southeast Asia, central Asia, and eastern China, only small pockets of natural habitat remain.
Tigers are important biologically to maintain the overall health of an ecosystem. As a top predator of the food chain, tigers help keep prey populations in check. Tigers also have cultural importance. Tigers have symbolized beauty, power, and fierceness for over 5,000 years. In Asia, tigers have been identified with gods and considered conquerors of evil. Ironically, the belief that tigers hold great power, even in their bones, is leading to their decline. Large, familiar animals such as tigers are often times the species that act as mediating elements, generating funds and action for habitat preservation. The loss of these symbolic cats could lead to a decline of support in maintaining their ecosystems, and consequently, all of the other plant and animal species that share it. The first sign of alarm about large-scale poaching of tigers dates back to August 1993, when 400 kg of tiger bones, eight tiger skins, and 59 leopard skins were seized in Delhi . The horrific size of the haul confirmed that organized wildlife crime had come of age in India . Since then, NGOs have documented poaching of tigers, habitat destruction and mismanagement time and again. But to little effect. Both the Central and the state governments have, for the most part, remained silent spectators to the carnage, hiding behind excuses, endless committees, and a ludicrous lack of transparency and accountability.
More often than not, a tiger's death is veiled in secrecy. And woe betide the manager of a protected area if he reports poaching or declares a decline in tiger population: All that will result most probably is his transfer.
In fact, managers are actively discouraged from showing a hands-on interest in anti-poaching efforts. Last month, a senior forest officer in central India refused to cooperate in a raid involving two tiger skins. He was expecting a promotion and didn't want ‘‘trouble in my area''. And thus, in the world of officialdom, tiger figures rarely diminish. What a wonderful bluff it has all been.

2. The Great Indian Tiger Factory:

The Interpol puts the trade in illegal wildlife products at $12 billion a year. Home to half of the world's tigers, India is keeping the supply line going. The rhino and the elephant apart, it is the big cat that pays the maximum in blood to keep this industry booming. Although tigers in captivity—about 20,000 in US ranches and another 1,500 in China’s tiger farms—often end up as trade material, the primary source of the trade has been wild tigers. In the international market, a tiger fetches at least $10,000, but broken into body parts, the value can soar to $50,000. Every bit of a tiger is in demand—the brain as cure to pimples and laziness, its whiskers for toothaches, the nose and eyes for epilepsy and malaria, the humerus bone for ulcers, rheumatism and typhoid. Tiger skin can cost up to $15,000. Tiger bones and body parts cost twice or three times as much as a tiger skin. In Hong Kong black markets, vendors sell powdered tiger humorous bone for over $3600/kg. In Seoul, it sells for $3000/kg. In Taiwan, a pair of eyes cost between $175-250. Tiger penis is used in a soup as an aphrodisiac—a bowl of the ‘‘first boil'' comes for nothing less than $100 while subsequent boils cost less. In Taiwan, a ‘‘rich'' bowl of tiger penis soup goes for a hefty $320. Finally, after about five to six boils, the penis is dried up and sold for anything between $200-500. In the late 1990s, a Japanese manufacturer was producing a brand of Tiger penis pills which were on sale for over $27,000 per bottle. China is the biggest producer of tiger bone pills and medicinal wine, but such medicines are also made in factories in South Korea and other South-East Asian countries.

Dealer price for raw tiger bone is estimated to be between $140 and $370/kg, depending on the size and quality of the bones. Till recently, the retail price of processed and powdered tiger bone in Singapore was over $4,000/kg. USING tiger parts for medicinal purposes is not limited to Asia. WWF investigation in England of Chinese chemists, craft shops and supermarkets in London, Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool showed that a number of shops sold products claiming to contain tiger derivatives. It's prevalent in many US states, particularly in Texas, primarily among the Chinese expats. Tigers are also valued as exotic pets. In 1998, WWF found two tiger cubs on open sale at a pet shop in Jakarta. Given such demand, it's little wonder that tigers are facing the worst ever crisis in India. In 10 years between 1994 and 2003, the Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) has recorded 684 cases of tiger poaching here. This excludes, due to insufficient poaching evidence, a large number of tigers that were ‘‘found dead''. In the last two years, skin seizures in India, Nepal and China indicate that another 221 tigers were poached. The Customs authorities multiply known offences by ten to estimate the size of an illegal trade. So even a very conservative estimate would suggest that the tiger and leopard trade in the subcontinent deals with at least 1,000 big cats a year.
Following strong legislation in different countries, the international tiger trade has been operating almost exclusively through ‘‘an army of ants''— large numbers of individuals smuggling small volumes of goods through a range of channels.
‘‘It is a thriving, uncontrolled market, which may explain the increased poaching of tigers in India that has left at least one tiger reserve devoid of tigers and four others almost empty. Huge seizures of tiger, leopard and otter skins in India and Nepal indicate the existence of highly organized criminal networks behind the skin trade. They operate across borders, smuggling skins from India through Nepal into China, and continue to evade the law,'' says Belinda Wright, executive director, WPSI. The modus operandi has been simple. One of the country dealers plant operators with a budget of about Rs 1 lakh in a village in or around a tiger forest. He spends months there, familiarizing himself and winning the confidence of the community and eventually luring a few villagers to poach a big cat for as little as Rs 15-25,000. Once the kill is made, the skin is sent to local tanneries—the ones in Kanpur and Allahabad have special expertise—and finally it reaches the kingpin. It's difficult to transport other body parts which are often dispatched separately. Once the kingpin has a good stock, consignments are sent across the porous border to Nepal, Tibet or Bangladesh. At this level, the country dealer earns between Rs 1,50,000 to Rs 2,00,000 depending on the size and quality of the skin. Bones, about 12 kg per tiger, fetches another Rs 50,000 to Rs 75,000. The foreign dealer, in turn, earns at least $10,000 per tiger product from the retailers. And then the products hit the retail market, spinning mega bucks. THE findings of the recent joint investigation by London's Environment Investigation Agency (EIA) and WPSI in Tibet and China points out that the supply line from India is very much active. ‘‘In the last five years, the international community has seen the trade in tiger and leopard skins spiral out of control. If this trade continues unabated for another five years, it will be the end for the wild tiger. It is imperative that the Indian and Chinese governments stop this trade now, before time runs out,'' says Debbie Banks, EIA's senior campaigner.
The Tiger Task Force report talks about a bunch of radical long term measures. But India won't have too many tigers left to be benefited by those steps if we don't act now. The Centre must address the issue at both ends. While bilateral talks with our neighbors and better vigilance at the border are necessary to curb the trade, immediate action is necessary to protect the tiger in its habitat against poaching.